~MEDIA PENGAJARAN~

TOPIC 10

image from: http://ira4212.blogspot.com/2010/01/model-model-pembelajaran-inovatif-untuk.html

Pemilihan Media Pengajaran

- Selaras dengan objektif P&P

- Dapat membiasakan diri dengan media

- Bersesuaian dengan kaedah

- Sesuai dengan keupayaan & gaya pembelajaran

- Pemilihan secara objektif

- Pengaruh keadaan sekitar

Media Pengajaran di Bilik Darjah

• Papan Tulis

- Bersih sebelum digunakan

- Kapur pelbagai warna

- Tulisan guru mesti jelas

- Kayu pembaris digunakan sebagai penunjuk

image from: http://www.faktailmiah.com/2010/09/24/sifat-sifat-bilangan.html

• Papan Gulung

- Mudah alih

- Boleh diguna semula

- Boleh dilekatkan gambar

image from: http://ipislam.edu.my/kplir/tek-pdk/bahan/papan_pengajaran.htm

• Carta

- Dibuat dari kad manila

- Ditulis atau dilukis sendiri

- Menggunakan gambar

image from: http://www.dotnetgoodies.com/

• Papan Pamer

- Contohnya: papan flanel, papan magnet, papan cangkuk, papan gabus

image from: http://tokomainan-murah.blogspot.com/2009/03/education.html

• Buku Teks

- Maklumat mudah didapati

- Mengandungi pelbagai aktiviti

- Terdapat ilustrasi

- Ada lampiran

- Penggunaan secara individu

image from: http://ajwadaie.blogspot.com/2010/10/sabar-dan-redha.html

• Perakam Kaset

- Mudah untuk dikendali

- Mudah alih

- Sesuai untuk kemahiran lisan

image from: http://www.clipartguide.com/_pages/0511-0803-0317-2608.html

• "Overhead Projector"

- Terdapat: Peti sumber cahaya, pentas tayangan, kepala pengunjur

- Dapat dilihat oleh semua pelajar

- Dapat menggantikan papan tulis

- Menayangkan pelbagai bahan

- Mengawal masa

- Tahan lama

- Mudah dikendali

- Slaid yang menarik

image from: http://www.clipartguide.com/_pages/0511-1001-2709-2948.html

• Televisyen & Video

- Sebelum guna:

1) Pra-tonton

2) Sediakan objektif pelajaran

3) Sediakan soalan-soalan panduan

- Semasa guna:

1) Tiada gangguan

2) Berhenti untuk penjelasan

- Selepas guna:

1) Aktiviti perbincangan

2) Sesi soal jawab

3) Tayangan semula

- Kelebihan:

1) Mempelbagaikan kaedah

2) Dapat menambah bahan pengajaran

3) Penyebaran ilmu secara meluas

image from: http://www.istockphoto.com/stock-illustration-11879879-family-watching-television.php

• Perisian Komputer

- Fungsi:

1) Latih tubi

2) Tutorial

3) Simulasi

4) Permainan

5) Penyelesaian masalah

• Realia

- Contoh:

1) Tumbuh-tumbuhan: daun, bunga, buah

2) Benda buatan: Pakaian, peralatan

3) Haiwan: Burung, Ikan

4) Batu, tanah & pelbagai jenis air

- Penggunaan:

1) Menggambarkan keadaan yang sebenar

2) Tiada kos

3) Membuatkan aktiviti menjadi lebih menarik

4) Tidak perlu diubah-suai

~INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL~

TOPIC 9

Information Processing Theories

- Concerned with the internal process

- Implication:

1) organize the instructional materials in a meaningful manner

2) directed instruction

Characteristics of Directed Instruction

- Prerequisite

- Supply instructional conditions

- Determine the type of learning

- Leads to step-by-step process

Stage Model of Information Processing

- Stage theory is based on work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

- model proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages:

1) Sensory memory

2) Short-term memory

3) Long-term memory

image from: http://digitalsandbox.edublogs.org/design-digital-lessons/

image from: http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/cognitivism/index.htm

image from: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/memory.html

~LEARNING THEORIES~

TOPIC 8

image from: http://teach-ology.org/

• 2 Main Paradigm:

- Behaviorist

- Cognitivist / Constructivist

image from: http://blogs.bgsu.edu/lpicker/2009/09/09/chapter-2-theory-and-pactice-foundations-for-effective-technology-integration/

• Behaviorist

- View learning as sequence of stimulus and response and as a product

- Manner: Step-by-step

- Implication:

1) structured

2) directed instruction

• Constructivist

- Characteristics:

1) Problem-oriented activities

2) Visual formats and mental models

3) "Rich" environment

4) Cooperative or collaboration learning

5) Learning through exploration

6) Authentic assessment models

• Possibilities & Problems:

image from: http://questgarden.com/62/12/8/080310082759/process.htm

- Can learners choose the most effective instruction?

- Will skills transfer to practical situations?

- How much prior knowledge needed?

- Which topics suit constructivist methods?

~SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM~

TOPIC 7

• Definition

- Emphasizes the important of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society

- Theories of: Vygotsky, Bruner, Albert Bandura

- Reality is constructed through human activirty

- Knowledge is a human product, socially & culturally constructed

- Learning as social process

image from: http://collaboration.pwsd76.ab.ca/course/view.php?id=69

• General perspectives of Social Contructivism on learning

1) Cognitive tools perspective

- focuses on learning of cognitive skills & strategies

2) Idea-based social contructivism

- set priority on important concepts in various discipline in science

3) Pragmatic / emergent approach

- assert that implementation of social constructivism in class should be emergent as the need arises

4) Transactional / situated cognitive perspectives

- focuses on the relationship between the people & their environment

• Vygotsky's Constructivism

- Social interaction in development of cognition

- ZPD: provide scaffolding

• Piaget's Constructivism

- Knowledge is actively constructed

- Theory on how a child's thinking evolves over time

- Focus on learning stages

~THE CONSTRUCTIVE THEORIES~

TOPIC 6

image from: http://www.tomchukfilms.com/articles/art_constructivism.php

Definition:

- Constructivism is a theory of learning which states that individuals learn through adaption

- Teacher's role is to build an environment that is stimulating and conducive to the process of constructing meaning and knowledge

Types of Constructivism:

1) Cognitive Constructivism

- Associated with information processing

- Reliance on the componenet processes of cognition

- Learning is the process of building accurate internal models

2) Social Constructivism

- (Prawatt & Floden, 1994) : Belief that knowledge is the result of social interaction and language usage

3) Radical Constructivism

- Knowledge acquisition is an adaptive process that results from active cognizing by the individual learner

Constructivist Pedagogy

1) Cognitive Constructivism -> accurate mental constructions of reality

2) Social Constructivism -> socially constructed reality

3) Radical Constructivism -> the construction of a coherent experiential reality

A theory of knowledge acquisition occurs in 4 assumptions:

1) Learning involves active cognitive processing

2) Learning is adaptive

3) Learning is subjective

4) Learning involves both social and individual processes

~THE BEHAVIORIST~

TOPIC 5

• Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov, John B Watson

image from: http://www.fadooda.com/index.php?itemid=156

image from: http://www.evolutionnews.org/2007/12/meet_the_materialists_part_8_j004334.html

- Discovered by accident by Ivan Pavlov, in his experiment with his dog, he noticed that dog salivated when it saw a person brought its food before the food was given

- John B Watson focused on stimulus and response

Terms in Classical Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS): external stimulus that does not ordinarily cause a reflex response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that evokes an unconditional response before conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR): an under reaction to unconditioned stimulus before previous conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previously neutral then has true conditioning acquire ability to evoke a condition response

Conditioned Response (CR): learn reaction to a condition stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

Example:

Before Conditioning

Bell -> no relevant response (means: no salivation)

Meat -> salivation

During Conditioning

Bell + Meat -> Salivation

After Conditioning

Bell -> Salivation

image from: http://forum.prisonplanet.com/index.php?topic=103938.0

reference: Course Manual (Learning in Young Children, Najihah Akeb-Urai, International Islamic

College)

• Operant Conditioning: B. F. Skinner

image from: http://integratingtech301.pbworks.com/Operant+Conditioning-+Danielle,+Jen,+Brooke

- Reinforcement: refers to any action that increase the probability of response or behavior

- Positive reinforcement: increasing of the rate of response when a stimulus is presented

example -> verbal praise, a token (such as sticker)

image from: http://chips.org.au/body.htm

- Negative reinforcement: increasing the rate of response when a stimulus
example -> Amir is told to leave the class when he make noise

image from: http://www.rewaj.com/parenting/discipline-versus-punishment.html

- Punishment: decreasing the rate of response when a stimulus is presented

~JEAN PIAGET~

TOPIC 4

image from: http://nursingcrib.com/nursing-notes-reviewer/psychiatric-mental-health-nursing/jean-piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development/

• Background

- born at Neuchatel, Switzerland on 1896- a professor of medieval literature at University of Neuchatel

- was a biologist who studied molluses, then moved into the study of the development of children's understanding

- died on 1980

• Piaget's Theory

- identifies 4 developmental stages:

1- sensorimotor stage

2- preoperational stage

3- concrete operations

4- formal operations

image from: http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/images/b/b8/Piaget_1.jpg

[Sensorimotor Stage - birth until 2 years old]

- the child builds a set of concepts about reality & how it works through physical interactions with his/her environment

- a child does not know that physical objects remain in existence even when out of sight

[Preoperational Stage - 2 until 7 years old]

- the child need concrete physical situations and not yet able to conceptualize abstractly

[Concrete Operations - 7 until 11 years old]

- the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his/her physical experiences

- abstract problem solving is possible at this stage

[Formal Operations - 11 until 15 years old]

- the child's cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning

• Piaget's Cognitive Learning Theory

1- Schema

- expressed in the form of action, language, thinking, opinion, or idea that represent characteristics of individual behavior

- Piaget: change in children schema is actually the result obtained from learning

2- Adaption & Equilibration

- adaption is a process of change in schema so as to meet the requirement of a certain situation

- the process of adaption is a learning process

3- Assimilation & Accommodation

- Piaget: Adaption covers 2 forms which is assimilation and accommodation

- depend on decision involving the individual's cognitive schema

• Implications of Piaget's Theory in teaching & learning process

- learning content arranged to the children's level of cognitive development

Concrete -> Abstract

- learning is changing behavior

~SISTEM KOMPUTER~

TOPIC 3

image from: http://epkhas.ses.usm.my/learning-object/mari-mengenal-komputer

• Definisi komputer

- Mesin elektronik yang beroperasi di bawah arahan yang tersimpan dalam ingatannya

1) Menerima data

2) Manipulasi data mengikut peraturan tertentu

3) Mengeluarkan keputusan

4) Menyimpan maklumat (keputusan) untuk kegunaan masa hadapan

• Evolusi Komputer

- Abakus -> tetulang -> pascaline

image from: http://picsdigger.com/image/d0c07eaf/

image from: http://webpages.cs.luc.edu/~mt/CS150/M1.html

- 1951: UNIVAC 1 (UNIVersal Automatic Computer 1), adalah komputer pertama yang diperdagangkan

- Era komputer moden -> 50 tahun

- Dibahagi kepada 5 generasi:

1) Generasi Pertama (1942-1959) : Era Tiub Hampagas

* Guna tiub hampagas untuk perlitaran, storan data, dan suruhan

* Besar, masalah haba yang tinggi dan tidak boleh dipercayai sepenuhnya -> pengendalian terganggu dan tidak cekap

* Pengaturcaraan dalam bahasa mesin

2) Generasi Kedua (1959-1965)

* Transistor dianggap sebagai satu suis

* Kelajuan lebih baik dan lebih kecil -> melaksanakan satu pengendalian dalam mikrosaat (juta sesaat) dan menyimpan puluhan ribu aksara

* Boleh dipercayai, padat saiz dan bebas daripada masalah haba

* Aturcara -> bahasa mesin dan bahasa bersimbol

3) Generasi Ketiga (1965-1970)

* Litar bersepadu yang amat kecil dan lebih baik

* Peranti I/o dapat berkomunikasi dalam jarak jauh melalui talian telefon / komunikasi

* Imbasan secara terus boleh dilakukan, paparan ala televisyen, mainkan muzik dan input suara yang terhad dengan tindakbalas

* Keupayaan storan lebih baik -> memproses banyak aturcara dalam nanosaat (seribu juta sesaat) dan secara serentak

* Bahasa paras tinggi

4) Generasi Keempat

* Keupayaan lebih baik

* Storan maya

* CD-ROM

5) Generasi Kelima

* Tidak sama dengan generasi sebelum ini

* Keupayaan yang terbaik:

a) saiz yang lebih kecil

b) saiz ingatan meningkat

c) kelajuan yang pantas

d) membuat penaakulan, pengiraan kompleks dan lain-lain

e) mesin bertutur -> robotik

• Jenis-jenis komputer

- Terdapat enam kategori utama:

1) Komputer Peribadi

image from: http://shoponline.com.sg/popup_image.php/pID/4121

2) "Handheld Computer"

image from:http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/tiqit-handheld-computer/

3) Perkakasan Internet

4) "Mid-range Server"

image from: http://www.ftei.com/solutions_midrange.asp

5) Kerangka Utama

6) Superkomputer

image from: http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/12/ibm-blue-gene-still-the-fastest-computer/

~PENGAJARAN & PEMBELAJARAN (P&P)~

TOPIC 2

Objektif P&P

• Menyatakan sesuatu yang hendak dicapai dengan jelas setelah tamat sesi pengajaran

Tujuan Objektif P&P

1. Menentukan arah dan tujuan pengajaran
2. Memberi panduan memilih isi
3. Memberi panduan bagi menentukan teknik & kaedah pengajaran
4. Membantu guru mengenalpasti bahan atau alat bantu mengajar
5. Memberi panduan untuk membina ujian
6. Membantu penyelia menilai pengajaran guru

Domain Objektif P&P

*Kognitif

image from: http://www.topnews.in/cognitive-therapy-can-ease-nonepileptic-seizures-2152401

Pengetahuan - mengingat, menamakan, mengulang

Pemahaman - menghuraikan, memilih, melapor, menceritakan

Penggunaan - mengendalikan, menunjukcara, menterjemah, menyelesaikan masalah

Analisa - menguji, membezakan, membanding, mengkritik

Sintesis - mengurus, mencadang, merekabentuk, mencipta, mengubah

Penilaian - mentaksir, menganggar

*Afektif

image from: http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/affective/intro.html

Menerima -> sikap terbuka ("open minded")

Membalas -> bertindakbalas

Menghargai -> lebih matang

Mengurus -> bertanggungjawab

Membentuk perwatakan -> sistem nilai yang mampu mengawal diri dan perlakuan

*Psikomotor

image from: http://library.thinkquest.org/28237/psychomotor.htm

Pergerakan spontan -> tanpa dirancang

Pergerakan asas -> berjalan, berlari

Keupayaan pengamatan -> gabungan kognitif dan fizikal (contoh: menjahit, bertukang)

Keupayaan fizikal -> bergantung kepada individu (contoh: kepantasan berlari)

Pergerakan kemahiran -> pergerakan dalam sukan

Pergerakan kreatif -> gerakan tersusun

Cara menulis Objektif P&P

1- Perlakuan pelajar -> apa yang ditunjukkan &dihasilkan

2- Perlakuan yang jelas -> mudah diukur (contoh: membaca, mengeja, mengira)

3- Situasi pembelajaran -> keadaan yang disediakan guru untuk membantu pembelajaran

4- Kriteria pencapaian -> mengukur & menilai perlakuan pelajar

5- Pencapaian minimum -> pelajar mengetahui keupayaan

6- Objektif yang munasabah -> yang sesuai

Panduan menulis Objektif P&P

• Relevan dengan kurikulum
• Pelajar
• Domain
• Jelas
• Berdasarkan apa yang pelajar patut tahu

Contoh: Setelah melihat "flash card" tentang buah-buahan, pelajar dijangkakan dapat menyebut & menulis sekurang-kurangnya 3 daripada 5 buah-buahan yang ditunjukkan