~Asas Teknologi Pengajaran~

~MEDIA PENGAJARAN~

TOPIC 10

image from: http://ira4212.blogspot.com/2010/01/model-model-pembelajaran-inovatif-untuk.html

Pemilihan Media Pengajaran

- Selaras dengan objektif P&P

- Dapat membiasakan diri dengan media

- Bersesuaian dengan kaedah

- Sesuai dengan keupayaan & gaya pembelajaran

- Pemilihan secara objektif

- Pengaruh keadaan sekitar

Media Pengajaran di Bilik Darjah

Papan Tulis

- Bersih sebelum digunakan

- Kapur pelbagai warna

- Tulisan guru mesti jelas

- Kayu pembaris digunakan sebagai penunjuk

image from: http://www.faktailmiah.com/2010/09/24/sifat-sifat-bilangan.html

Papan Gulung

- Mudah alih

- Boleh diguna semula

- Boleh dilekatkan gambar

image from: http://ipislam.edu.my/kplir/tek-pdk/bahan/papan_pengajaran.htm

Carta

- Dibuat dari kad manila

- Ditulis atau dilukis sendiri

- Menggunakan gambar

image from: http://www.dotnetgoodies.com/

Papan Pamer

- Contohnya: papan flanel, papan magnet, papan cangkuk, papan gabus

image from: http://tokomainan-murah.blogspot.com/2009/03/education.html

Buku Teks

- Maklumat mudah didapati

- Mengandungi pelbagai aktiviti

- Terdapat ilustrasi

- Ada lampiran

- Penggunaan secara individu

image from: http://ajwadaie.blogspot.com/2010/10/sabar-dan-redha.html

Perakam Kaset

- Mudah untuk dikendali

- Mudah alih

- Sesuai untuk kemahiran lisan

image from: http://www.clipartguide.com/_pages/0511-0803-0317-2608.html

"Overhead Projector"

- Terdapat: Peti sumber cahaya, pentas tayangan, kepala pengunjur

- Dapat dilihat oleh semua pelajar

- Dapat menggantikan papan tulis

- Menayangkan pelbagai bahan

- Mengawal masa

- Tahan lama

- Mudah dikendali

- Slaid yang menarik

image from: http://www.clipartguide.com/_pages/0511-1001-2709-2948.html

Televisyen & Video

- Sebelum guna:

1) Pra-tonton

2) Sediakan objektif pelajaran

3) Sediakan soalan-soalan panduan

- Semasa guna:

1) Tiada gangguan

2) Berhenti untuk penjelasan

- Selepas guna:

1) Aktiviti perbincangan

2) Sesi soal jawab

3) Tayangan semula

- Kelebihan:

1) Mempelbagaikan kaedah

2) Dapat menambah bahan pengajaran

3) Penyebaran ilmu secara meluas

image from: http://www.istockphoto.com/stock-illustration-11879879-family-watching-television.php

Perisian Komputer

- Fungsi:

1) Latih tubi

2) Tutorial

3) Simulasi

4) Permainan

5) Penyelesaian masalah

Realia

- Contoh:

1) Tumbuh-tumbuhan: daun, bunga, buah

2) Benda buatan: Pakaian, peralatan

3) Haiwan: Burung, Ikan

4) Batu, tanah & pelbagai jenis air

- Penggunaan:

1) Menggambarkan keadaan yang sebenar

2) Tiada kos

3) Membuatkan aktiviti menjadi lebih menarik

4) Tidak perlu diubah-suai

~INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL~

TOPIC 9

Information Processing Theories

- Concerned with the internal process

- Implication:

1) organize the instructional materials in a meaningful manner

2) directed instruction

Characteristics of Directed Instruction

- Prerequisite

- Supply instructional conditions

- Determine the type of learning

- Leads to step-by-step process

Stage Model of Information Processing

- Stage theory is based on work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

- model proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages:

1) Sensory memory

2) Short-term memory

3) Long-term memory

image from: http://digitalsandbox.edublogs.org/design-digital-lessons/

image from: http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/cognitivism/index.htm

image from: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/memory.html

~LEARNING THEORIES~

TOPIC 8

image from: http://teach-ology.org/

2 Main Paradigm:

- Behaviorist

- Cognitivist / Constructivist

image from: http://blogs.bgsu.edu/lpicker/2009/09/09/chapter-2-theory-and-pactice-foundations-for-effective-technology-integration/

Behaviorist

- View learning as sequence of stimulus and response and as a product

- Manner: Step-by-step

- Implication:

1) structured

2) directed instruction

Constructivist

- Characteristics:

1) Problem-oriented activities

2) Visual formats and mental models

3) "Rich" environment

4) Cooperative or collaboration learning

5) Learning through exploration

6) Authentic assessment models

Possibilities & Problems:

image from: http://questgarden.com/62/12/8/080310082759/process.htm

- Can learners choose the most effective instruction?

- Will skills transfer to practical situations?

- How much prior knowledge needed?

- Which topics suit constructivist methods?

~SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM~

TOPIC 7

Definition

- Emphasizes the important of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society

- Theories of: Vygotsky, Bruner, Albert Bandura

- Reality is constructed through human activirty

- Knowledge is a human product, socially & culturally constructed

- Learning as social process

image from: http://collaboration.pwsd76.ab.ca/course/view.php?id=69

General perspectives of Social Contructivism on learning

1) Cognitive tools perspective

- focuses on learning of cognitive skills & strategies

2) Idea-based social contructivism

- set priority on important concepts in various discipline in science

3) Pragmatic / emergent approach

- assert that implementation of social constructivism in class should be emergent as the need arises

4) Transactional / situated cognitive perspectives

- focuses on the relationship between the people & their environment

Vygotsky's Constructivism

- Social interaction in development of cognition

- ZPD: provide scaffolding

Piaget's Constructivism

- Knowledge is actively constructed

- Theory on how a child's thinking evolves over time

- Focus on learning stages

~THE CONSTRUCTIVE THEORIES~

TOPIC 6

image from: http://www.tomchukfilms.com/articles/art_constructivism.php

Definition:

- Constructivism is a theory of learning which states that individuals learn through adaption

- Teacher's role is to build an environment that is stimulating and conducive to the process of constructing meaning and knowledge

Types of Constructivism:

1) Cognitive Constructivism

- Associated with information processing

- Reliance on the componenet processes of cognition

- Learning is the process of building accurate internal models

2) Social Constructivism

- (Prawatt & Floden, 1994) : Belief that knowledge is the result of social interaction and language usage

3) Radical Constructivism

- Knowledge acquisition is an adaptive process that results from active cognizing by the individual learner

Constructivist Pedagogy

1) Cognitive Constructivism -> accurate mental constructions of reality

2) Social Constructivism -> socially constructed reality

3) Radical Constructivism -> the construction of a coherent experiential reality

A theory of knowledge acquisition occurs in 4 assumptions:

1) Learning involves active cognitive processing

2) Learning is adaptive

3) Learning is subjective

4) Learning involves both social and individual processes

Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov, John B Watson

image from: http://www.fadooda.com/index.php?itemid=156

image from: http://www.evolutionnews.org/2007/12/meet_the_materialists_part_8_j004334.html

- Discovered by accident by Ivan Pavlov, in his experiment with his dog, he noticed that dog salivated when it saw a person brought its food before the food was given

- John B Watson focused on stimulus and response

Terms in Classical Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS): external stimulus that does not ordinarily cause a reflex response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that evokes an unconditional response before conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR): an under reaction to unconditioned stimulus before previous conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previously neutral then has true conditioning acquire ability to evoke a condition response
Conditioned Response (CR): learn reaction to a condition stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

Example:

Before Conditioning
Bell -> no relevant response (means: no salivation)
Meat -> salivation

During Conditioning
Bell + Meat -> Salivation

After Conditioning
Bell -> Salivation

image from: http://forum.prisonplanet.com/index.php?topic=103938.0

reference: Course Manual (Learning in Young Children, Najihah Akeb-Urai, International Islamic College)

Operant Conditioning: B. F. Skinner

image from: http://integratingtech301.pbworks.com/Operant+Conditioning-+Danielle,+Jen,+Brooke

- Reinforcement: refers to any action that increase the probability of response or behavior
- Positive reinforcement: increasing of the rate of response when a stimulus is presented
example -> verbal praise, a token (such as sticker)

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- Negative reinforcement: increasing the rate of response when a stimulus
example -> Amir is told to leave the class when he make noise

image from: http://www.rewaj.com/parenting/discipline-versus-punishment.html

- Punishment: decreasing the rate of response when a stimulus is presented