~THE BEHAVIORIST~

TOPIC 5

• Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov, John B Watson

image from: http://www.fadooda.com/index.php?itemid=156

image from: http://www.evolutionnews.org/2007/12/meet_the_materialists_part_8_j004334.html

- Discovered by accident by Ivan Pavlov, in his experiment with his dog, he noticed that dog salivated when it saw a person brought its food before the food was given

- John B Watson focused on stimulus and response

Terms in Classical Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS): external stimulus that does not ordinarily cause a reflex response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that evokes an unconditional response before conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR): an under reaction to unconditioned stimulus before previous conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previously neutral then has true conditioning acquire ability to evoke a condition response

Conditioned Response (CR): learn reaction to a condition stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

Example:

Before Conditioning

Bell -> no relevant response (means: no salivation)

Meat -> salivation

During Conditioning

Bell + Meat -> Salivation

After Conditioning

Bell -> Salivation

image from: http://forum.prisonplanet.com/index.php?topic=103938.0

reference: Course Manual (Learning in Young Children, Najihah Akeb-Urai, International Islamic

College)

• Operant Conditioning: B. F. Skinner

image from: http://integratingtech301.pbworks.com/Operant+Conditioning-+Danielle,+Jen,+Brooke

- Reinforcement: refers to any action that increase the probability of response or behavior

- Positive reinforcement: increasing of the rate of response when a stimulus is presented

example -> verbal praise, a token (such as sticker)

image from: http://chips.org.au/body.htm

- Negative reinforcement: increasing the rate of response when a stimulus
example -> Amir is told to leave the class when he make noise

image from: http://www.rewaj.com/parenting/discipline-versus-punishment.html

- Punishment: decreasing the rate of response when a stimulus is presented

~JEAN PIAGET~

TOPIC 4

image from: http://nursingcrib.com/nursing-notes-reviewer/psychiatric-mental-health-nursing/jean-piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development/

• Background

- born at Neuchatel, Switzerland on 1896- a professor of medieval literature at University of Neuchatel

- was a biologist who studied molluses, then moved into the study of the development of children's understanding

- died on 1980

• Piaget's Theory

- identifies 4 developmental stages:

1- sensorimotor stage

2- preoperational stage

3- concrete operations

4- formal operations

image from: http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/images/b/b8/Piaget_1.jpg

[Sensorimotor Stage - birth until 2 years old]

- the child builds a set of concepts about reality & how it works through physical interactions with his/her environment

- a child does not know that physical objects remain in existence even when out of sight

[Preoperational Stage - 2 until 7 years old]

- the child need concrete physical situations and not yet able to conceptualize abstractly

[Concrete Operations - 7 until 11 years old]

- the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his/her physical experiences

- abstract problem solving is possible at this stage

[Formal Operations - 11 until 15 years old]

- the child's cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning

• Piaget's Cognitive Learning Theory

1- Schema

- expressed in the form of action, language, thinking, opinion, or idea that represent characteristics of individual behavior

- Piaget: change in children schema is actually the result obtained from learning

2- Adaption & Equilibration

- adaption is a process of change in schema so as to meet the requirement of a certain situation

- the process of adaption is a learning process

3- Assimilation & Accommodation

- Piaget: Adaption covers 2 forms which is assimilation and accommodation

- depend on decision involving the individual's cognitive schema

• Implications of Piaget's Theory in teaching & learning process

- learning content arranged to the children's level of cognitive development

Concrete -> Abstract

- learning is changing behavior

~SISTEM KOMPUTER~

TOPIC 3

image from: http://epkhas.ses.usm.my/learning-object/mari-mengenal-komputer

• Definisi komputer

- Mesin elektronik yang beroperasi di bawah arahan yang tersimpan dalam ingatannya

1) Menerima data

2) Manipulasi data mengikut peraturan tertentu

3) Mengeluarkan keputusan

4) Menyimpan maklumat (keputusan) untuk kegunaan masa hadapan

• Evolusi Komputer

- Abakus -> tetulang -> pascaline

image from: http://picsdigger.com/image/d0c07eaf/

image from: http://webpages.cs.luc.edu/~mt/CS150/M1.html

- 1951: UNIVAC 1 (UNIVersal Automatic Computer 1), adalah komputer pertama yang diperdagangkan

- Era komputer moden -> 50 tahun

- Dibahagi kepada 5 generasi:

1) Generasi Pertama (1942-1959) : Era Tiub Hampagas

* Guna tiub hampagas untuk perlitaran, storan data, dan suruhan

* Besar, masalah haba yang tinggi dan tidak boleh dipercayai sepenuhnya -> pengendalian terganggu dan tidak cekap

* Pengaturcaraan dalam bahasa mesin

2) Generasi Kedua (1959-1965)

* Transistor dianggap sebagai satu suis

* Kelajuan lebih baik dan lebih kecil -> melaksanakan satu pengendalian dalam mikrosaat (juta sesaat) dan menyimpan puluhan ribu aksara

* Boleh dipercayai, padat saiz dan bebas daripada masalah haba

* Aturcara -> bahasa mesin dan bahasa bersimbol

3) Generasi Ketiga (1965-1970)

* Litar bersepadu yang amat kecil dan lebih baik

* Peranti I/o dapat berkomunikasi dalam jarak jauh melalui talian telefon / komunikasi

* Imbasan secara terus boleh dilakukan, paparan ala televisyen, mainkan muzik dan input suara yang terhad dengan tindakbalas

* Keupayaan storan lebih baik -> memproses banyak aturcara dalam nanosaat (seribu juta sesaat) dan secara serentak

* Bahasa paras tinggi

4) Generasi Keempat

* Keupayaan lebih baik

* Storan maya

* CD-ROM

5) Generasi Kelima

* Tidak sama dengan generasi sebelum ini

* Keupayaan yang terbaik:

a) saiz yang lebih kecil

b) saiz ingatan meningkat

c) kelajuan yang pantas

d) membuat penaakulan, pengiraan kompleks dan lain-lain

e) mesin bertutur -> robotik

• Jenis-jenis komputer

- Terdapat enam kategori utama:

1) Komputer Peribadi

image from: http://shoponline.com.sg/popup_image.php/pID/4121

2) "Handheld Computer"

image from:http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/tiqit-handheld-computer/

3) Perkakasan Internet

4) "Mid-range Server"

image from: http://www.ftei.com/solutions_midrange.asp

5) Kerangka Utama

6) Superkomputer

image from: http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/12/ibm-blue-gene-still-the-fastest-computer/